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3. Iconography

3.1 Animate

3.1.1 Human figures

Clothing and Adornment

When J. Auboyer committed herself to an extensive study of the decorative motifs on the ivory and bone carvings from Begram, she was almost immediately struck by the scant number of male figures depicted (Auboyer 1954:61). Occasionally a royal or other prominent figure is shown, recognizable by a dhoti and turban, and a few horse riders and hunters wearing long-sleeved coats, but their presence in the plaques and bands is relatively insignificant compared to the great number of women depicted. Most of the women shown on the ivory and bone pieces are dressed in a long striped lower garment, or antariya, around which is worn a three-strand hip-girdle from which a long pleat falls in front along the legs (Fig. 95i). In a few cases, the women are shown wearing a shawl around the shoulders, known in India as uttariya. Some women, mostly those acting as attendants or guards, are depicted wearing tunics consisting of a short pleated skirt and a long-sleeved upper garment (Fig.95j), while others are shown in long dresses with short sleeves worn over trousers (Fig.95h). In the latter case, a long pleat from the dress is draped over the lower arm in a manner reminiscent of Hellenistic Greek fashion. Rather than this being a custom taken from Hellenism by Indian women, however, some scholars have asserted that these are probably depictions of foreign women, who were known to be present at Indian courts. Yet another dress style consists of trousers with round appliqués and a long-sleeved tunic, worn my both men and women (Fig.95e), which is more reminiscent of Kushan and Parthian dress than of Indian garments.

Figure 95

In addition to women wearing various types of clothing, there are a number of plaques, mostly those carrying an incised decoration, where women are shown nude save for elaborate jewelry and headdresses. In one plaque (Plate 46) discovered in Room 10, the nudity and overt sexuality is emphasized by a prominent execution of the genitals. Other plaques found in Room13, depicting dancing women, also clearly accentuate the genitals (Plate 68).

Of the few men depicted in the plaques, some are wearing trousers and short jacket, in particular those on horseback while hunting. The hunters depicted on the ground wear a striped lower garment reminiscent of that worn by some women, but instead of merely hanging from the waist, the pleat is pulled tight between the legs and fastened in the front or back creating a type of “trouser” (Plate 189). This type of drapery is still found in India today, worn by people conducting physical labor. In one plaque from Room13, a man is depicted wearing a short-sleeve upper garment with a belt tied around his waist, creating a pleated lower portion of the shirt, and a striped dhoti in the above-mentioned “trouser” style (Fig.95c). Another garb worn by men consists of a short pleated skirt without any upper garment (Fig.95b).

The women depicted in the ivory and bone objects wear various headdresses[1] ranging from simple to elaborate and adorned with various kinds of ornaments (Fig.96). The most common headdress brings to mind not only styles from Bharut and Mathura, but also from the art of Gandhara, such as the hair made up in buns and loops (Fig.96f). Other frequently shown headdresses consist of the hair tied up toward the back in a cone-like fashion, with or without ornaments (Fig.95j-l). Most of the women have a circular ornament adorning the forehead: sometimes this consists of a bun of hair as often seen in the Mathura style of the 1st and 2nd century CE., in other instances it is a circular medallion reminiscent of the Amaravati style of the same period.

Figure 96

The men are also adorned with various types of headdresses. In some cases they are wearing different styles of turbans (Plates 185 and 190) and in one example a ‘soft’ pointed cap (Plate 171). In the case of two men on two engraved plaques depicted in front of a forest dwelling, their hair is worn loose and appears matted very much in the fashion, known as jata-kalapa, for ascetics and hermits (Plates 172). Another interesting depiction of a hairdo is seen on an incised plaque where a figure has his hair bound in a tiny knot on top of his head (Fig.96d). This hairstyle is common in depictions of small children and it seems that the figure shown is a small boy directing his attention to the toy held in the hand of a woman depicted in front of him (Plate 170).

The amount of jewelry worn appears to have depended on the status of the person depicted (Fig.97). Female attendants usually have but a single bracelet, armlet, necklace and anklet, whereas women of higher status wear several pieces of each type, which often are also more elaborate or richer in form. Earrings likewise range from plain to elaborately carved, depending on the status of the figure shown. The earring or kundala appears in a number of shapes, including circular, heart-shaped and as a ‘stop-sign’, as shown in Fig.97a-j. Necklaces also consist of various types, most commonly single strand necklaces made up of circular beads with or without a pendant attached (Fig.97m-n).

Figure 97

The most elaborate of all bracelets or kankana are worn by three female figurines (Plates 199, 200 and 201) and consist of a number of plain rings flanked below by a more elaborate carved floral piece and above by more elaborately carved bracelets, as well as one made of pearls (Fig.97s). Other bracelets appear in the same combination but are less elaborate, with a series of plain rings flanked by two ornamental ones with a pearl motif. Many female figurines are shown wearing different types of armlets, also known as keyura (Fig.95 l,p and r). An interesting piece of adornment, different in that it is more than mere jewelry, is the cross-belt or channavira, which according to Ramachandra Rao is worn to indicate “valour and war-like qualities” (1989, vol2:230). In the Begram pieces, the cross-belt is worn by the vyala-yaksas and yaksas, and by several pairs of hunting men[2] (Plates 191, 193 and 195).

An additional adornment found on many of the women is a girdle or kati-bandha placed around the hip and holding in place the women’s lower garment or antariya. Most of the girdles are made up of three strands of circular or oval pieces with an elaborate clasp in front (Fig.97u,w); others have one or two strands and square pieces rather than circular (Fig.97 t). In one Begram plaque, a woman is shown wearing an extraordinary girdle made up of large round balls below which a short pleated skirt or sash is worn (Plate 84); it is the only such ornament seen among the Begram pieces.

Figure 97

Finally, there are also foot ornaments on the women depicted in the Begram carvings, which range from small and plain to larger and more elaborate, some consisting of a series of plain rings running down from the knee and ending in large round anklets, and occasionally appearing as large round anklets without the plain rings (Fig.97).

Scenes

The women in the plaques and bands are depicted in pairs or groups, usually in scenes of relaxation and playful activity, enjoying leisure time, reclining on beds or cushions, or at their toilet with the aid of attendants. For example, the inner central scene on the lid of footstool IX (Plate 57) depicts four women at leisure, apparently within their quarters, in a relaxed and peaceful atmosphere. The woman on the left is depicted in three-quarter profile toward the right. She is seated on a round stool and shown naked except for her girdle and jewelry. Her hair is done up in a cone-like fashion with ribbons and ornaments tied in it. She wears elaborate earrings, bracelets and a necklace made up of a centrally placed quadrangular piece flanked by round ones, all three held between two thin bands. A girdle consisting of circular pieces is worn around her thighs; broad anklets are also worn. Her arms are flexed upward, and on her left hand sits a parrot, facing her.

Second from the left, in this group of four, stands another near-naked woman, facing the previously-described figure, her body slightly flexed toward her right. Her hair is done up in the same fashion as the figure next to her, but she wears less elaborate earrings consisting of a circular piece placed above a heart-shaped one. Bracelets made up of a series of thin plain bands flanked by two larger ones are worn on each arm and a large plain anklet on each foot. A girdle is placed around the hips; behind her back, one can see drapery falling along her right leg. In her raised left hand she balances a bowl of fruit while her right hand is directed toward the parrot.

The right part of the scene contains a similar portrayal. The woman on the far right is shown in three-quarter profile facing the left, seated on a small four-legged stool. She has the same hairdo as the figure on the far left. With her right hand she holds her right earring; with her left she holds a mirror in front of her. She wears a girdle made up of circular pieces from which another piece of garment falls between her legs down to heavily decorated anklets. A figure to the left-front of her is on her knees holding up a kind of bowl; she wears a girdle of three strands and a pleat of cloth falling between her legs, and similar but less elaborate ornaments as does the standing woman. The two sitting figures on the far left and far right are probably of higher rank than the other two; they have more elaborate ornaments and jewelry, and appear to be served or attended to by the others.

Another beautiful ivory, carved in high relief, depicts a voluptuous woman seated on a branch of an asoka tree (Plate 1). Her face is round with full cheeks and a fleshy mouth, her eyes long and narrow. She wears an elaborate headdress with a circular ornament in the center of her forehead. Large earrings in both ears consist of six flat circular medallions placed on top of one another. There are bracelets around each wrist, a series of plain rings bordered above and below by more elaborate ones. Her arms are flexed upward and her hands hold a thin long band, perhaps a necklace. On the right biceps an armlet is worn, around the hips is a plain girdle consisting of five bands, and on the feet are heavy anklets. Her companion to the left wears her hair tied up at the back, giving it a cone-shaped appearance. She wears the same circular ornament on the forehead as does the other figure, and the same earrings. Her armlet, too, is similar to the other’s, although she wears very plain bracelets. An elaborate girdle is worn around a dhoti gathered in a pleat in front and falling between the legs.

Most of those Begram ivory and bone objects which depict women display scenes similar to the ones described immediately above, though not all are of the same artistic quality. Most of the scenes involving men can be characterized as hunting scenes: in some, men depicted with a bow or spear on horseback are chasing an animal or attacking one; in others, the men are portrayed on foot, engaged in battle with an animal (Plate 185). There is also a scene in which a man is depicted flanked by woman attendants or female guards (Plate 207). In his arms he clutches the bodies of two, now headless, winged creatures. He knees are bent and his legs crossed, his weight resting on the tips of his feet. In another plaque, small male figures are depicted as musicians who formed a part of the regular entertainment (Plates 166-167).

That these Begram ivory and bone objects depict scenes of inner court-life is suggested by Auboyer, who believed that the depictions are scenes from the women’s quarters, a position supported by the small number of male figures shown (Auboyer 1954:61). Although entry to the harem itself would have been forbidden to the carvers, the artisans might well have had drawings of the women’s quarters, as well as descriptions translated from texts in Sanskrit. This and other issues of the subject matter of the Begram ivory and bone carvings will be discussed in detail in section 3.4.

3.1.2 Mythological creatures

Makara

The ivory and bone objects of Begram are rich in the depiction of mythical creatures. The makara, the fish-monster, appears in many of the objects. Originally, the term makara referred to an actual fish or crocodile, but over time it transmuted to a fantastic mythological creature (Knappert 1991:164). By the time of the Begram carvings, it had become a composite creature with the tail of a fish (which later evolved into a vegetal motif), the body and head of a crocodile, and scales. The makara is the emblem of the god of love, Kama, and also serves as the vahana or vehicle of several other gods, such as Varuna the god of the ocean, and the river goddess Ganga.

Three Begram female figurines are each standing on a makara (Plates 199, 200 and201). The existence of the makaras led many scholars to believe that the statuettes represent river goddesses such as Ganga, or the yaksi Sudarsana (Hackin 1939:16). However, there is no compelling evidence that the scenes in the Begram ivory and bone objects in general, or in these statuettes in particular, were religious rather than secular in nature. The depiction of the makara was common in Indian sculpture of the time, such that artisans may have used the makara as simply a design feature without any attendant religious significance. This possibility is supported for the Begram ivory and bone carvings by the overwhelming number of ‘domestic’ scenes of women at leisure and in their private quarters.

These makaras are compactly pressed, presumably dictated by the piece of ivory available (Plates 199, 200 and201). The creature has the tail of a fish, with scales, and the head of a crocodile. The mouth is held wide open and reveals a large tooth, smaller but more like an elephant’s dentine than a crocodile’s tooth.

Another depiction of the makara occurs in two plaques carved with sunken relief decoration (Plates 335 and 336). The plaques show the makara with a fish tail and scales, and the body and head of a crocodile. The upper part of the mouth on one of the plaques is curled up, almost like an elephant’s trunk. These plaques, too, present what seem to be purely secular scenes, suggesting no religious reference for the makaras.

Vyala-Yaksa/Yaksi

Another type of depiction found on the Begram ivory and bone carvings, and well known from first century CE. Mathura art, is what the French excavators referred to as an ‘anguiped’, a half-human, half-fish creature (Plates 285, 286 and 287). The small seated figure in Plate 285, for example, wears a stylized headdress with two rows of saw-tooth design. He has a large, slightly oval head with a broad forehead; on the sides of the head, protruding outward, are fish tails. He wears circular earrings, a broad necklace similar in shape to the girdle worn around his hips, and broad bracelets. From the girdle hangs a triangular dhoti which, judging from the motif, probably represents a leaf. His arms embrace the tails of two makaras which are depicted face-downward at either side of his body. The mouths of the creatures are wide open and seem to be devouring the legs of the small figure.

In addition to the larger three plaques (Plates285, 286 and 287), the vyala-yaksa also appears as a repeating ornamental figure in decorative bands. In one plaque (Plate 314), a row of vyala-yaksas are depicted alternatingly with winged lions. From each of the small figures’ heads protrude two fishtails, and each is wearing a triangular ‘skirt’ in the shape of a large leaf. The vyala-yaksa depicted frontally on the far right has his left foot placed on the hind of the winged lion to his left while his left hand ‘pushes’ against the animal’s snout. The vyala-yaksa in the middle is depicted frontally, clutching the bodies of the two winged lions flanking him. The vyala-yaksa on the left is depicted in three-quarter profile, also interacting with the winged lions flanking him.

Female vyala-yaksi are also depicted in several repeating decorative bands. One such band (Plate 291) depicts the vyala-yaksi clutching the vegetal tails of two makaras. Two fish tails protrude from their heads, and they each wear a three-leafed skirt[3]. The makaras are depicted head down with open mouth facing away from the vyala-yaksis and toward a frontally depicted eagle. The eagle motif alternates with the depiction of the vyala-yaksi. In another Begram band (Plate 293), the female vyala-yaksi is depicted similarly with makara and eagle, but unlike the previously-described band each figurine is presented with legs and a short skirt.

The depiction of the vyala-yaksa is prevalent in the art of Mathura where it appears in several forms. However, as will be discussed in the next chapter, the Begram representations of the creatures also offer analogies to the earlier art of Bactria, which may indicate a particular route this motif traveled and demonstrate stages in its transformation.

Yaksas/Yaksis

The vyala-yaksa/yaksi described above belong to a larger group of semi-divine forest beings associated with trees and known in Indian mythology as yaksas and yaksis. Although mentioned in ancient Vedic literature, the earliest references to the yaksas in Indian art are seen in the inscribed statues of ancient Bharut, which are dated to the first century CE. The yaksa/yaksi class of semi-divine beings form an important part of the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain pantheons in which they are described as capable of both evil and good and able to make themselves visible and invisible and to transform their appearance.

Many yaksas and yaksis are known by name from the ancient Indian literature.

In the Skanda Purana, for example, a yaksa is described as follows:

“This mighty lion which was born from the anger of the Goddess will be your vehicle and he will be on your banner, O Goddess. Go to the Vindhya mountains and there do the work of the gods, killing Sumbha and Nisumbha, Taraka’s generals. This Yaksha, known as Pañcala, is given to you as your servant, endowed with hundreds of feats of magic illusion and attended by one hundred thousand Yaksas.” (Hindu Myths 1975:259).

The female yaksi counterparts are often shown as very beautiful women who can lead men astray in the forest. They are invoked for their magical powers, and many of them are worshipped for fertility and prosperity. Although yaksas and yaksis may appear as ordinary men and women, such as in the statues at Bharut and Mathura, they are usually shown as short, sturdy, large-bellied creatures holding pots or flowers in their hands.

Several yaksas are depicted in the Begram ivory and bone objects (Plates 397, 398, 399 and 400). One yaksa type, presented in a plaque, depicts a small pot-bellied figure in a leaf-like skirt. In several small plaques a yaksa is depicted squatting and holding a large vase with lotus buds, and with flowers on his head. In appearance he is similar to the vyala-yaksa described in the previous section, but he lacks the protruding fish tails. A particularly interesting aspect of two of these Begram yaksa figures is that they are portrayed with wings. Wings are not part of any attributes of figures from the Indian pantheon and are exceptionally rare in Indian art. The implication of these wings on Begram figures will be delved into in the following chapters which compare motifs from Begram to the styles of its surrounding regions.

Another form referred to as yaksi is that of the asvamukha or ‘horse-face’ yaksi (Knappert 1991:276). Several plaques of the Begram ivory and bone objects depict a half-horse and half-female creature, which may suggest some form of this particular mythological being (Plates 202-203).

Winged lion

Another common theme in the ivory and bone carvings from Begram is the winged lion (Plate 300), a composite creature having the body and face of a lion and the wings of an eagle. The winged lion is not a Indian invention and does not appear in Indian mythology. Its origin lies in the Near East, from where it was gradually diffused into South Asia as well as other areas[4].

On one bone plaque from Begram, the winged lion creature is depicted standing on its hind legs in profile toward the right, head turned back toward the left, front paws lifted high in the air (Plate 302). On another ivory, two rows of winged lions stand on top of each other, back to back (Plate 308). The rows are separated by a vertical floral motif surrounded by a collier of pearls; horizontally above the scene is a band decorated with a floral design.

A slight variation on this same theme occurs in several other pieces (Plates 319, 320 and 321). Each of these scenes depicts a pair of fantastic winged creatures seated with chests flat on the ground, hinds in the air. They are shown in profile, facing each other and separated by a decorated disk (cakra)[5]. Each of the creatures has the body of a lion and wings, but the faces differ: some have a human face; one has the snout of a makara; another, the head of a lion.

Slight variations on the winged lion type can also be seen on several plaques belonging to the ensemble of footstool IX. One plaque depicts a creature with the body and head of a feline but the horns of a ram (Plate 332). Two other plaques depict the body and head of a feline but what seem to be the ears of a donkey or horse.

A particular interesting version of a winged animal is a creature known as a Sardula, a beast with the body of a lion, wings of an eagle, and beak of a parrot. Millard Rogers, in referring to Stella Kramrisch’s definition, describes the Sardula as follows:

“It is an animal made by art with the body of a lion and may have the beak of a parrot. The sardula is commonly associated with pearls which often issue from its mouth. The animal rears and turns as it is lashed by the rider carried upon its back. The rider is typically armed, while a second warrior, with the sword of knowledge drawn, crouches below the sardula and seizes the tail of the beast. Both sardula and his counter players are part of a wave” (Rogers 1952:5).

In appearance, the Sardula is analogous to the griffin (gryphon), which also has the body of a lion and elements of a bird. Some scholars suggest that this motif goes back to 2nd millennium BCE. Syria, from where it was diffused to other parts of the Near East and Greece (Black and Green 1992:101). The same authors note that the griffin is often depicted with donkey ears.

Several Begram ivories are carved in the shape of a Sardula (Plates 315, 316 and 317). The creature in one plaque emerges from the open mouth of a makara, its hind legs resting on the lower jaw of the larger creature. On the back of the Sardula rides a female figurine, and below that, with legs resting on the open mouth of the makara, stands a small yaksa who supports with his left hand the leg of the female figurine. The Sardula has wings consisting of both feathers and fish scales, which are flanked on top by a row of pearls. The creature also has large pointed ears. A slight variation on the Sardula occurs in a Begram plaque which depicts the creature in the conventional manner with the beak, feline body and wings, but adds the horns of a ram and the feet of a human (Plate 311).

It seems reasonable to assume that this Begram creature was derived from its earlier counterpart to the west, but it has taken on a number of characteristics not seen in western griffins. One of these features is the fish scales, which give it an aquatic aspect further underlined by the presence of the makara, which itself imparts a distinct Indian character. The association of the two human figures is also different from its western counterparts. According to Millard Rogers, these Sardulas of the type found at Begram were often used as brackets supporting the architraves of structural toranas or gateways, and the makaras from whose mouth the Sardulas sprout are of a type characteristic of Mathura art in the first century CE (Rogers 1952:8).

Ganas, like yaksas, are a group of semi-divine creatures. They are the attendants of the gods and often amuse the gods by playing music, dancing and singing. In visual art they are usually shown as stocky, short figures with large bellies. They are thought to have been more approachable than gods and therefore seem very popular deities.

One severely damaged Begram plaque depicts a row of seven small dwarfish figures playing musical instruments and dancing. The figure on the far left holds up some type of horn. The next figure on the right holds two cymbals in his hand and is followed by a dancer. Further to the right are depicted a person holding a drum, two dancers and another figure too damaged to clearly see his attributes.

This row of figures could be simply a row of human musicians, with no reference to the ganas of Indian mythology. However, considering the extent to which mythological themes are prevalent in the Begram ivory and bone carvings, it can also be asserted that these may have followed the general pattern of presenting common Indian motifs.

The nagas -- serpents -- like the yaksas and ganas are considered semi-divine beings. The latter inhabit the sphere immediately above the earth, while the nagas inhabit the sphere immediately below. In mythology, the nagas are associated with water and trees, and are symbols of fertility. According to Ramachandra Rao (1988, vol. 3:208), in the coastal regions of south India one can find gardens and forests dedicated to the nagas. This may be of interest for the origins of the motifs on Begram ivory and bone carvings, which also carrying depictions of enclosed gardens.

In visual art, nagas are depicted in several forms: the upper part human, either male or female, and the lower part that of a snake; fully human but with the hood of a snake; and, fully as a snake. Ramachandra Rao notes:

“The head of the naga must be covered by the serpent’s hood (mastake bhoga-mandalam). It may be a single hood, or the hoods may be three, five, seven or nine in number. Each of the mouth (-hoods) must have split tongue (dvi-jihva). The two hands of the naga must carry sword and shield (khadga-chrma-karair yutah).” (1988, vol. 3:211).

The representation of snakes on some of the ivory and bone carvings from Begram raises the possibility that these could be nagas. Different Begram

incised plaques depict a torana constructed of several multiple-headed cobras. In one plaque (Plate 277), there are four-headed cobras, three-headed in another example. Curled around the upper part of the vertical uprights of the torana, the cobras make up the horizontal architraves of the gateway. Other than their being multi-headed snakes, however, none of the known attributes of nagas can be detected on the Begram examples. However, in India itself there are representations which do not display the usual attributes, such as in the naga-mandala, used for ritual, or the naga-bandha, so that the absence of the other attributes on the Begram figures is not dispositive of this question. Rather, it may have been that the Begram ivory and bone carvers were familiar with the various visual representations of the nagas and adapted these forms to a use unique within the arts of the Indian sphere.

This particular mythological creature is a composite being, with the body of a bird and the head of a human[6]. Kinnaras or Kinnaris function as celestial musicians and singers. They are not the most well known of the mythological creatures of South and Central Asia, but do appear sporadically in Indian art. Their closest counterparts probably are the sirens of Classical mythology, sea nymphs who were part woman, part bird, and who distracted sailors with their songs and caused ships to wreck. The Indian version is much more benign but shares the same iconography.

Among the Begram objects the Kinnari appears in the form of an earthenware pot, described in Chapter 1.4 (Fig. 55). On one incised plaque from Begram, two Kinnaris or kinnaras are depicted facing each other (Plate 341). Their bodies are of a bird with a cock’s plumage, while their faces and necks are human and adorned with earrings and necklaces. Another plaque depicting two women under a torana in relief, shows two Kinnaris within the two lower horizontal architraves. Again, they are shown with the lower part of a bird and with human faces.

Figure 55

The Gryllus motif

An interesting motif found twice on the Begram ivory and bone carvings is a composite creature consisting of various human and animal forms. In Graeco-Roman art, in particular glyptic art, this type of comic representation is known as a “Gryllus”. Of note regarding the genesis of the various motifs which appear at Begram, Grylli do not seem to occur in this form in the art of India proper.

On the top of footstool IX from Room10 Begram, Grylli form part of the broad incised outer decorative band (Plate 57). One is depicted in each of the corners of the plaque and consist of five elements: a feline (or perhaps equine) head and neck positioned on top of a kind of human head; a bird’s head shown under the human head; a two-headed makara to the back, an elephant’s head on the other side; and sprouting from the elephant’s head and the human head, a scroll of medallions.

From Room13, another such Grylli can be found on a plaque in relief (Plate 429). The execution is almost identical to the one described above. The pieces are too damaged to make an exact comparison, but the elephant and human appear quite similar in style to the ones depicted on footstool IX. In addition, this plaque also depicts a similar vine scroll sprouting from the mouth of the elephant. (This is another example of similar styles occurring at Begram on plaques carved by a different technique, as discussed in Chapter 2.3).

There are a number of interesting variations on otherwise well-known mythological beings among the Begram ivory and bone carvings. They manifest themselves in various forms of human-faced composite creatures.

One semi-circular Begram plaque (Plate 322) depicts a creature with a slender, widely curved lion’s body with wings, and a human face. This is not a depiction one sees in Indian art, yet the combination is seen in three more or less identical plaques, with a sunken relief, from Begram. The creature has a feline body, the front part of which is positioned on the ground with its lower body in the air, wings and a human-like face.

An interesting variation on the above-described theme is the depiction on a small ivory plaque belonging to the same ensemble, footstool IX, as the Gryllus motif (Plate 324). This is the fluid depiction of a creature with the hind quarters of a feline and a human torso and face, but with hands placed on the floor in a four-legged position. On its head is a small turban. Another plaque (Plate 323) in this ensemble displays the same creature but with a slightly larger, more grotesque human face.

3.1.3 Flora and fauna

Animals

Many of the depictions of various sorts of animals and birds in the ivory and bone objects from Begram are sculpted or engraved with a high sense of realism, while others show varying degrees of stylization. The animals shown are well known to the arts of India, in particular the elephant, one of the most important of the Indian pantheon. In images of Gaja-devi, or Gaja-laksmi, the goddess is depicted together with two elephants. And as Gaja-vahana, Kartikeya the son of Siva is shown in the form of Indra, whose mount is a pachyderm. The god Ganapati (Ganesa) appears in the form of an elephant. And in iconography there is a form known as Gaja-hasta, which holds an arm in a particular fashion in front of the body, like a trunk (Ramachandra Rao 1989:120-121). In addition to its importance within the religious pantheon, the elephant was also connected to royalty and was one of the most important vehicles, together with the horse-drawn chariot, in ancient war.

The elephant appears in a number of forms in the Begram ivory and bone carvings, but exclusively within the realistic portrayals of secular scenes or as part of decoration, and not in references to the Indian pantheon. In one plaque (Plate 173), the elephant is depicted as a vehicle of transportation, carrying several figures on its back. In another it appears in the wild, confronted by a lion or another type of feline (Plate 278). One particular plaque (Plate 180) also shows it being hunted by a horseback rider armed with a bow, and in another example it is shown in the process of being killed. It is sometimes depicted as a decorative motif in one of the architraves of a torana (Plate 80), very reminiscent of an actual torana from the Lomas Rsi cave in the Barabar Hills in India (Fig.118). It also appears on one of the plaques of the ensemble known as footstool IX, where it is depicted quite realistically in a square frame (Plate 217).

Figure 118

This particular ensemble also depicts, among several more fantastic creatures, an interesting array of mammals, including lions, a deer, an antelope, a horse, and a humpback cow, the last being a popular motif not only in India but in the arts of the Near East as well. The lion also is a popular motif in the art of Begram, sometimes shown in a benign form as an element of a decorative band, or in a more violent, forceful aspect attacking a deer (Plate 283). In none of the Begram plaques, however, is the lion associated with a human, such as those associated with goddesses of the Hindu pantheon who have lion mounts.

The horse is mainly shown as a tamed animal used in the hunt. Several plaques (Plates 186-187) depict men on horseback hunting wild animals. In a few other plaques, the horse is repeated as an independent decorative motif.

Aside from the horse and elephant which are clearly depicted as part of the retinue of humans, most other animals are shown as decorative motifs or as objects of the hunt, such as the boar and the antelope (Plates 190, 191 and 192).

Birds

Figure 144

In addition to the mammals mentioned above, the Begram ivory and bone objects are widely decorated with scenes of birds, which appear in many varieties and forms. Ducks are the most prevalent, either depicted in rows or as individual elements(Plates 227-258). In a beautifully engraved plaque, for example, between two bands of stylized floral motifs, a series of ducks or geese is carved in full flight, with spread wings and heads pointed upwards (Plate 231). This type of depiction is known from the Shah-ji-ki-dheri copper reliquary associated with the Kushan king Kanishka (Fig.144). The upper horizontal band of this reliquary depicts a series of ducks or geese in full flight with spread wings and carrying a ring in their beaks, very reminiscent of a Begram example in which the birds are carrying branches (Plate 228). (For a discussion of this copper reliquary, see section 4.2, in which the art of the Begram carvings is compared to that of Gandhara. The posture of the ducks in this Begram example is also very reminiscent of ducks in the paintings from Kizil (Hackin 1939, fig.219); another similar depiction also occurs in a Begram plaque carved in relief (Plate 237).

In addition to their appearance as repeating decorative motifs, ducks also occur as part of main narrative scenes. For example, a beautiful carving in sunken relief found in Room10 depicts a naked woman, with a flower or leaf in her hand, who is playing with a duck portrayed to her right; the duck has its head raised to the hand holding the flower or leaf (Plate 177).

The parrot and peacock are also depicted in the Begram carvings. Most famous as vehicles of the god of love Kama, the parrot is thought to symbolize wisdom and the peacock “impatient desire” (Knappert 1991:136). Also, these are often portrayed within the retinue of animals associated with the gardens of the royal courts. In the beautifully carved top of footstool IX, the seated woman on the left faces a parrot perched on her left hand (Plate 57). To the right, the parrot’s cage is depicted. The peacock is not seen on the Begram pieces in any of the main scenes involving humans. Instead, it is portrayed in separate plaques perched at the foot of a tree (Plate 259) or in the company of other birds (Plate 282).

Several other types of birds are shown on the Begram carvings. On one incised plaque, four birds are depicted in three-quarter profile, two with their beaks slightly opened and two with their beaks closed (Plate 273); their shape is similar to that of a dove. Another type of bird, perhaps an eagle, is presented frontally on several plaques, with its wings spread. In one object, a series of eagles is depicted alternating with images of vyala-yaksis (Plate 291); the eagles are flanked by two makaras, whose tails are clutched by the vyala-yaksis, on whose open mouths it is perched.

The eagle is not a common theme in early Indian art, save as part of a composite creature like a Sardula, or as Garuda, the mount of Visnu,. But Garuda is depicted as half human and half eagle. And while in Gandhara there is the image of Garuda as entirely an eagle, even in that image he is carrying a snake, one of Garuda’s usual attributes. The Begram examples, however, are devoid of any accompanying snakes or other attributes and have no human aspects. In style, these Begram eagle representations are more reminiscent of the arts of Rome and Parthia, such as the reliefs at Palmyra and Hatra. In India, it is only in Gupta period coins, in the so-called Garuda banner type, on which occurs a frontally depicted eagle with spread wings, perched on top of a staff accompanying the image of the king.

(In addition to mammals and birds, depictions of fish appear on the Begram objects. However, since they are portrayed in a certain symbolic manner, they will be discussed in the following section 3.3. under auspicious symbols rather than here under the category of fauna.)

The scenes depicted on the Begram carvings are often enriched with floral motifs of trees and lotuses, either realistic or stylized and shown either within scenes or flanking the main depictions. The majority of the largest plaques depicting scenes with women include depictions of trees or vines. In a series of incised plaques, the central scene of women is usually set in a decor of trees suggesting a garden (Plates 69-70). And a number of plaques depicting hunting scenes are filled with trees bearing fruit.

The most prevalent depiction is that of an asoka tree. It appears on several plaques from Begram either entirely (Plate 344), or only as branches; its leaves are pointed and it carries large fruit. In mythology, it is held that this tree only blooms and bears fruit when touched by the foot of a beautiful woman, signifying fertility (Coomaraswamy 1985:64; Zimmer1962:69). In several sculptures at Mathura, for example, a beautiful young maiden can be seen leaning against the asoka tree. In the Begram carvings, too, several women can be with seen with a foot held against a tree (Plates 78 and 80), underlining the general idea of fertility symbolized by other motifs in the scenes.

In addition to trees, flowers are also frequently depicted in the ivory and bone objects, the lotus being the most important (Plate 348). Long associated with water and fertility, the lotus is also an attribute of the Indian goddess Laksmi. The Begram examples are sometimes very naturalistic representations (Plate 348) and other times stylized versions of the full-blown lotus (Plate 350).

In many plaques, floral designs are used as decorative motifs repeated on bands which border the main scenes. Examples are a scroll-like vine making up medallions (Plate 421), rows of a four-petal flower motif which border the bottom of a series of plaques (Plate 125), and a decorative floral design depicting rows of heart-shaped leaves(Plate 102).

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