Begram Web

Three ivory ‘statuettes’ discovered in Room 10 provide the first Begram examples for comparison [1] . One is a severely damaged piece consisting of a woman depicted in profile standing with legs crossed on a makara (Plate 199). The total height of this ivory statuette is 56 cm. The right arm of the figurine hangs alongside her body while her left arm is flexed upward, her hand touching a decorative item in her ear; her entire body is tilted slightly to her right. Her hair seems to be covered by a kind of turban consisting of a twisted piece of cloth. On top of the turban rests something in the shape of a column, perhaps a vase. Her face is severely damaged but appears to be round and fleshy; on her forehead is a rosette-shaped ornament, and she wears large earrings. Her upper body seems to be naked except for what may be a necklace or chest ornament of which only a piece remains over the left breast. Bracelets of thin plain rings, ending in larger more elaborate ones, are worn on either arm. She wears a pleated dhoti sown to her ankles, with one large pleat falling from the belly down the front to the height of her thighs; a girdle or sash is worn around the left hip and right thigh.

The second ivory statuette from Begram is another woman standing on a makara (Plate 201). This figurine stands 40 cm high, with legs together and right hip bent outward giving the body a swaying pose. The face is oval with a pointed chin, elongated eyes, a thin nose with sharp edges, and a thin mouth with lips held slightly apart. The top of the head is too badly damaged to see what kind of headdress she wore, but some stylized curls are visible, as well as a rosette-shaped ornament on her forehead. The upper body is nude except for a necklace, which bears a centrally placed pendant, and a cross-shaped chest ornament with a rosette medallion in the middle. Her right arm is broken off; her left arm hangs down her body, the hand holding a piece of her pleated dhoti, which is similar to the one described above, as is the heavy sash tied around it. On her feet are double rows of heavy anklets.

The third in the group of three high-relief statuettes found at Begram is similar in iconography to the other two, but her anatomical features are different (Plate 200). Standing 45 cm tall, her legs are together and her right hip bent slightly outward, giving the body a swaying pose, with the upper body tilted to the left. Her left arm hangs down along her body and her hand grasps a branch of an asoka tree. Her right arm is flexed upward but is broken off at the wrist. In contrast to the other two figurines, who are each depicted wearing an Indian lower garment, she wears a clinging tunic more reminiscent of Greek styles. Her hair is done up in curls over a round face with large eyes, a sharp nose and a relatively small mouth with a thin upper lip; from each side of the nose runs a deep groove to the corners of the mouth. Her bracelets are similar to those worn by the other two Begram figurines and consist of single decorated bands. As her headdress and part of the front of her head are damaged, it is not possible to determine whether she, too, wore a rosette-shaped ornament on her forehead.

Three other ivory statuettes exist which may be meaningfully compared with the above-described three from Begram. One was found in Pompeii, Italy; a second was excavated in Bhokardan, Maharastra State, India; and the third was uncovered at Ter, India.

The central female figurine in the Pompeian statuette stands 25 cm high (Fig.101-103). She is shown naked except for an elaborate girdle around the hips, from which drapery falls on both sides. The head is slightly tilted forward and inclines to the left. The face is broad and chubby, with eyes large and open, well-marked eyebrows, straight nose, full lips and rounded chin. The hair is centrally parted, smoothed and draped low over the forehead, with a rosette-type ornament hanging directly below the parting. From the back of the head, protruding horizontally to the left, is an enormous cone-like object the function of which will be discussed below.

The neck of the central figurine is short and sturdy, and from it, falling between the breasts, is a three-strand necklace of heavy beads bearing a pendant in the shape of a lotus flower; just above the breasts, two cylindrical objects project forward from beneath the necklace. This Pompeii central figurine wears bracelets from wrist to elbow on both arms, consisting of a series of narrow plain bands bordered above and below with broader richly decorated rings. The left arm is flexed straight upward at the elbow, with the hand extended to touch the decorative item beside the neck. The right arm is raised at the shoulder and the elbow is bent to cross the occiput and touch the two long, heavy, flower-like festoons which encircle the head and fall over the shoulders (Fig.102). These festoons enclose an involved central rosette and cover the entire back of the figurine to waist level. The central figurine’s sturdy crossed legs are laden with tight plain rings which run from just below the knee to weighty and intricately embellished anklets.

Symmetrically flanking the Pompeii central figurine are two female attendants cut from the same block of ivory. They are far less ornate than, and are rendered half the size of, the central figurine. Each attendant gathers pleats of a scanty garment with one hand while the other arm is flexed; the upturned free hand of one attendant carries a tall narrow box, while the free hand of the other bears two large cone-shaped objects which appear to be carved in a spiral. The flat plinth on which the trio rests is almost sickle shaped, but with the ends carefully tailored to accommodate the carved details of the feet. (Description, with permission, from During Caspers 1981:343-344; see for other notes Dwivedi 1976:64-66; Bussagli 1950; Levi d’Ancona 1950).

The Pompeii central figure has a narrow hole drilled from the crown of the head down to her waist (Fig.103). Previously it was assumed that this hole carried a mirror, with the statuette as its handle. Dr. E.C.L. During Caspers, however, pointed to the existence of a small triangular hole on the left of the crossed lower leg, which may suggest that the statuette was meant to be fixed onto another structure. The cone-like protrusion from the figurine’s head and the sickle-shaped base do not balance the ivory in an upright position, which militates against its use as a mirror handle (During Caspers 1981:346-354). Dr. During Caspers suggests, rather, that the statuette might have been a kind of caryatid supporting a small footstool or table. In this regard, and with reference to the Begram ivory and bone carvings in general, it is interesting to note that the Pompeian figurine carried a mark in Kharosthi script. Kharosthi marks are present on several of the Begram objects (Fig.56).

The first two statuettes from Begram, described in the beginning of this section, compare favorably to this figurine from Pompeii. Several similarities can be pointed out. Comparing the Pompeii ivory to the first ivory figurine from Begram (Plate 199), both have similarly shaped rosette ornaments placed on their foreheads under the part in their hair. Also, both figurines stand in similar poses: cross-legged with one leg in front of the other, and left arms flexed upward touching a decorative item beside the neck. The decorative items, too, although different in shape, are of similar patterns. The shape and attitude of the bodies are likewise similar: both bodies are slightly flexed and are slender with large round breasts. The jewelry, too, though not carrying the same decorations, is similar in shape: large anklets and bracelets made up of a series of plain rings flanked by two larger, more decorative ones.

The second ivory statuette from Begram, described above, also compares favorably with the Pompeii figurine: the rosette-shaped ornament on her forehead, the slender body with large round breasts, and the ovaloid face with fleshy cheeks (Plate 201). Regrettably, her right arm is broken off, so there is no way to know whether it was held in a similar pose, flexed upward toward the neck.

Although some scholars believe it to be of Kushan origin, it has also been suggested that the Pompeii figurine originated in a Satavahana atelier; her elaborate hairstyle is found on figures from Sañci (Srivastava 1983:fig.11). A Satavahana origin may be corroborated by the discovery of a very similar ivory statuette at Bhokardan, Maharastra, India. However, the existence of the Kharosthi mark may indicate a more northwestern workshop for the Pompeian figurine.

The small ivory Bhokardan statuette stands at a height of 12.5 cm and consists of a central female figurine flanked by two smaller attendant figures, all carved from a single block of ivory (Fig.104-105) (Mehendale 1993: 529-533). Unfortunately, from just above the waist the body is broken off and lost. The figurines’ feet rest on a base, certain parts of which appear to be damaged. Looking at the statuette from above, it has been noted that a circular hole runs down from the center of the body (Deo 1974: fig.38D).

The voluptuous central figurine is naked save for an elaborate girdle consisting of three bands around the hips. The upper band is made up of joined rectangular pieces alternating with small round ones. Beginning just below the knees and running all the way down the calves, the central figurine wears a series of plain rings which end in large pumpkin-shaped anklets. The feet of the central figurine appear to have been unfinished, leaving the impression that they form part of the base.

It is impossible to say what attributes the figure may have carried or what other ornaments she may have worn on the missing upper part of her body. However, one can conjecture to a certain degree about an elaborate headdress. Looking at the statue from behind (Fig.105), one can see a small piece jutting out just above the attendant figure on the left. This piece is part of a band in high relief which runs slightly upward from the head of the attendant on the left toward the right side of the central figurine’s body. This high relief piece does not appear to be a part of the lower body but rather something which hung from the head along the back of the figurine. Most likely it was part of an elaborate headdress and a long plait of hair which was draped along the back, much like that worn by the ivory figurine from Pompeii (Fig.102).

The attendant figure on the left of the Bhokardan figurine stands waist high with her back against the leg of the main figure. Her feet are joined together, the left knee slightly bent so as to give balance to the body. The head of this attendant figure appears to be covered by a scarf which, except for her bangs, does not reveal any hair. She wears a necklace of oval pearls, a girdle, and bracelets made up of plain bands running from elbow to wrist. Over her left shoulder she carries a kind of bag, while her left arm reaches across her middle where her left hand, holding a garland, seems to support the right arm at the elbow. The right arm is bent straight upward, and the hand holds up a jar.

The attendant on the right is identical in shape to the one to the left. Her left hand rests on her hip and her right hand clutches a piece of fabric which seems to be draped around her neck and shoulders and which might represent a part of the central figurine’s toilet. She wears a headdress similar to her counterpart’s, and the same three-band girdle, save for the fact that she wears it over a sari which covers from hips to ankles. In the back, at the height of the hips, the sari is gathered in a bun and passes through her legs. She wears double rows of pumpkin-shaped anklets. As with the central and left-side figures, the right-side figure’s feet are an indistinct part of the base; there is no visible indication that any of the figures was meant to have completely finished and distinct feet.

The Bhokardan figurine is nearly identical to the Pompeii figurine, and had she not been broken in half many of the similarities described above between the Pompeii figurine and two of the Begram statuettes might also have been apparent in the Bhokardan figurine. In addition to iconographical analogies, the Pompeii and Bhokardan figurines present a theme very common in other pieces of the Begram ivory and bone collection: many scenes which decorate the Begram plaques and bands consist of women assisted by attendant figures, while eating, reclining or doing their toilet.

A third ivory statuette to be compared with the Begram, Pompeii and Bhokardan figurines was excavated at Ter in India (Barrett 1960; Moti Chandra 1960). The extant figurine stands 13 cm high [2] , with both legs broken off below the knees (Fig.106-107). She has a large ovaloid face which is slightly out of proportion with her slender body. Her hair is arranged in plaits down the back, and placed on her forehead between a parted hairline is a central rosette. Around her hips she wears a girdle, over which is a pleated sari seeming almost transparent, emphasizing her near-nudity. She wears on each arm a series of plain bangles flanked by bracelets and armlets; a necklace hangs over her large round breasts. With her right hand she holds on the same side a rosette-shaped earring. Her left hand holds a piece of garment at her left thigh. From the far left side of her head their is a protrusion similar to that seen on the head of the figurine from Pompeii (Description, with permission, from During Caspers 1981:349).

There has been some conjecture made about the functional use of these statuettes; for the most part they have been referred to as mirror handles. Dr. During Caspers, however, in a paper read in 1979 at the Fifth International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, pointed to the existence of two smaller circular holes below the knees of the figurine from Ter similar to the hole on the lower leg of the Pompeii statue discussed above which, along with the carved backs of the objects, suggest that both statuettes were meant to be fixed onto other structures. Dr. During Caspers remarks that:

All these factors combine to suggest that each of these statuettes might have been some sort of caryatid, perhaps supporting a small table. One could visualize the statuette as one of four caryatids, each attached to one leg of a small table and connected at the leg-holes to another similar caryatid leg (During Caspers 1981:351-352).

With regard to the Bhokardan figurine, judging from the circular hole drilled along its axis and its similarity to the Pompeii ivory, it seems reasonable to assume that the Bhokardan figurine also had been a caryatid. But the question remains whether the similarity of the Begram figurines to the Bhokardan, Pompeii and Ter statuettes can reveal anything about the functional use of the Begram pieces. It should be noted that the Begram examples were almost twice the size of the Pompeii, Bhokardan and Ter figurines, but this does not rule out a similar function in a larger piece of furniture. Unfortunately, none of the Begram figurines was included in any of the reconstruction done by Carl and Hamelin, so there are no detailed descriptions other than the stylistic ones in the catalogue and it has not been possible to examine the statuettes to determine whether any had indications of fastening devices such as the axial circular hole found on the figurines from Pompeii, Bhokardan and Ter. One of the figurines from Begram (Plate 199), however, has a vase or column on her head, which may have made a good transition to a flat surface plate; the other two figurines have damaged head pieces, so it is impossible to say whether they had similar flat top surfaces. One figurine, however, has what seems to be a rectangular plaque on top of her heavily damaged headdress, which may have had some relation to a top plaque. However, this figurine was found encased in a type of box (see section 2.2.4 and Figs.65-66) which seems to indicate that it may have been part of a panel.

In addition, one of the Begram figurines (Plate 201) has a sickle-shaped base like the Pompeii ivory, only in this case carved into a makara. As noted earlier, Dr. During Caspers described the impracticality of this type of base for a freestanding figure. Although no fastening holes were noted by the excavators in the catalogue, one can conceive that the openings between certain body parts, such as the legs, feet etc., could have been used to insert some sort of fastening devices.

Although the exact function of the three ivory statuettes from Begram may never be determined with certainty [3] , considering the nature of the other ivory and bone pieces discovered at Begram and the considerable similarities to the ivory statuettes described above, it seems reasonable to assume that the Begram figurines, too, had formed part of furniture. The similarities also open up the possibility that the Bhokardan, Pompeii and Ter ivories could help provide a chronology for the Begram figurines, in particular since the Pompeii ivory has such a clear terminus ante quem date of 79 CE. when the Vesuvius erupted and destroyed the city (see Chapter 5).

The site of Dal’verzin-tepe is situated on the right bank of the Surkhan-darya, 7 kilometers north of Surci and 30 kilometers south of Denau in Uzbekistan (Fig. 4a). During the Kushan period, the settlement became the main town of the central part of the Surkhan-darya valley. Many exciting discoveries at Dal’verzin-tepe deserve close attention, such as two Buddhist sanctuaries and a number of finds indicating the extent of trade in the region. For this discussion, however, the concern is the ivory and bone finds from a small sanctuary DT-9 (Pugachenkova 1978:88-89).

A small ivory comb from Dal’verzin-tepe is nearly identical in technique and subject to some of the ivory objects from Begram (Figs.108-109). Three-quarters of the comb is decorated on both sides. The figurative scenes are separated from the undecorated part by a narrow strip consisting of two plain horizontal bands between which, alternatingly, are depicted a horizontally positioned pearl and two small plain vertical bands.

The decoration on one side of the heavily damaged comb (Fig.108) consists of four human figures. The central figurine is depicted on a rectangular seat or cushion. Her face is round with a pointed nose, sharp eyebrows and almond-shaped eyes. Her lower body is turned to her left while her upper body reaches to her right. Her left arm is raised and extended forward. It seems as if she was holding up some sort of utensil in her left hand. Her right hand rests on the seat. Her hair is done up in a large bun hanging from the back of her head. She wears a striped dhoti, a series of plain bracelets and large round anklets.

The figurine in the lower left corner is only partly visible because the plaque is heavily damaged along the sides. She is depicted from the side, facing right. Only part of her right arm and dhoti are visible, carved in the same manner as the central figurine.

The figurine in the lower right corner is depicted seated on a round cushion in three-quarter profile with her torso and lower body turned to her left and her head facing her right. Her facial features and attire are similar to the central figurine. Because the plaque is damaged, it is not clear whether she, too, wears her hair in a bun.

In the upper right corner another woman is depicted seated. Only parts of her body can be clearly seen due to damage to the plaque. She wears a garment similar to that of the other women, and large circular anklets. In her hands she appears to be holding a large round plate with some sort of foodstuff in it.

The reverse of this ivory comb is identical in execution to the obverse (Fig.109). A decorated part, separated from the undecorated element by a narrow strip consisting of two plain horizontal bands within which, alternatingly, pearls and two plain vertical bands are depicted. The decorated part consists of a scene depicting at least three women and an elephant [4] . The central figurine is depicted in a dancing posture with her left arm raised and her right hand placed on her hip. Her left leg is bent and slightly raised and her right leg is held straight, suggesting movement. Her body is turned in three-quarter profile to her left, but her head is turned the other way and looks back to a companion depicted in the left of the plaque.

This second female figure, her hair done up in a bun just like the figurines on the other side of the comb and her left arm flexed upward, is partially hidden by an elephant depicted in the left foreground. The animal is also only partially visible and is shown in profile facing the right. A third woman is partially depicted in the right foreground sitting on a square stool or cushion, her body turned to the right but her face turned back watching the dancing scene. The facial features, ornaments and clothing of these women are similar to the ones depicted on the other side.

There has been some speculation about the original function of this ivory plaque. Although it is clear that it was made into a comb, Dr.. Marshak has suggested [5] that before being carved into a comb, this ivory object could have been part of a larger plaque. The point is certainly well taken, since part of the scenes depicted both on the obverse and reverse of the comb seem to be ‘cut off’ at essential points. The exact measurements of the comb are 9.5 x 6.5 x 7.8 cm (Antiquities of Southern Uzbekistan 1991:269). The width is on the small side for a comb, particularly compared with others found in Taxila, for example. However, it could also be argued that the scenes were cut off due to heavy damage and that the original function of the object was indeed a comb. Nonetheless, the notion of a previous function is an interesting one, particularly when considering a plaque from Begram carrying a similar decoration which was used for furniture decoration (see below).

There are several similarities between this comb from Dal’verzin-tepe and the Begram ivory and bone objects. The analogies include type of ornamentation, scenes depicted and technical execution.

The first Begram object which is nearly identical in style is an incised ivory plaque depicting four figures (Plate 170). The plaque is elaborately shaped, with horizontal top and bottom edges from which protrude square elements which were part of the assemblage scheme, and with elaborately and symmetrically curved sides. The scene depicts four people, one in each corner of the plaque. In the lower left corner a woman is depicted seated on a cushion, facing left. Her left hand is stretched out, holding a type of rattle in her hand. Due to the bad condition of the ivory, it is not clear what type of clothing she wears.

The rattle in the hand of the woman on the left is directed toward a small, nude figure, perhaps a child, depicted in the right lower corner. This figure faces the left, his right arm stretched out towards the rattle. His hair is done up in a small cone on top of his head, reminiscent of children’s headdresses.

In the top left corner, a woman is depicted seated on a circular stool or cushion. Due to damage, only her legs are still visible, which are adorned by circular anklets. A fourth person is depicted in the upper right, again barely visible, carrying in her arms a large round bowl with foodstuffs in it. Her lower body is adorned by a dhoti and she, too, wears large circular anklets. In the foreground of this scene, a decorative horizontal band is depicted, perhaps indicating a balustrade of some kind.

Among the chief analogies between this plaque from Begram and the ivory comb from Dal’verzin-tepe are the unusual combination of facial features on the figures: all figures depicted on both objects have sharp pointed noses and almond-shaped eyes. The clothing and ornaments, too, are very similar. In addition, the carving of the large bowl held in the hand of one figure on the Dal’verzin-tepe example is identical to one on the plaque from Begram. Moreover, the particular technique used for certain decorative motifs is strikingly similar. This particular technique utilizes a ‘dotted’ decoration to be seen on elements in the large bowl carried by figures in both objects, on the several footstools or cushions, and for the elephant in the Dal’verzin-tepe plaque. The technique is so similar that one can almost assume they were made by the same hand, or at least in the same atelier.

Two other plaques from Begram (Plates 179 and 192) also display analogies to the ‘dotted’ technique used in the Dal’verzin-tepe ivory comb. Both plaques depict elephants executed in the same manner, with a dotted physique.

The analogies between the Dal’verzin-tepe plaque and those from Begram do not end there. In the beautiful example of the top of footstool IX, in addition to the sharp facial features of the four figurines depicted, the ‘bead and reel’ motif on both objects is identical: two horizontal plain bands in which, alternatingly, pearls and two vertical plain bands are depicted (Plate 57).

The exact likeness of the decorations described above is compelling. Like decorations have not been witnessed in any other ivory or bone object found in the Indian ‘heartland’, and so may well point to a common northern tradition for both the Begram and Dal’verzin-tepe ivories.

Another object discovered in Dal’verzin-tepe which presents a technical analogy to some of the Begram pieces is a bone ‘playing piece’ (Antiquities of Southern Uzbekistan 1991:269). On one side it depicts two facing cocks (Fig.110); on the extremities are three plain bands incised into the ivory. The other side, visible in the same photograph, seems to depict three birds, perhaps cocks, but only part of the plumage is visible.

Although the portrayal of cocks has no exact parallel among the Begram objects, several plaques (Plates 256, 272-282) depict birds and other animals incised with a very similar technique to the Dal’verzin-tepe dice. Moreover, the excavation at Dal’verzin-tepe also revealed ivory chair legs (Antiquities of Southern Uzbekistan 1991:268-269) and the fact that these ivory pieces were part of furniture gives further evidence of ivory carving in the northwest regions, and strengthens the hypothesis of a northwest workshop for the Begram objects.

[1] N°s 320a and b, and 319 (Hackin 1939). It is unclear whether these were freestanding statues, as implied by the later photographs (Hackin 1954: fig.234-235), or part of a panel, which seems to be indicated by the in situ photograph published in the 1939 volume.

[2] Deshpande 1961, measures her 16.4 cm high.

[3] The inventory of Kabul Museum, where the statues were on display, has been looted.

[4] Parts of the plaque are too damaged to clearly distinguish the decorative motifs.

[5] During discussion with the author following a conference in Tashkent, 1995.

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Begram Ivory and Bone Carvings